Enroll in our special English courses to ace your score.
1066-1500 AD: The remarkable period when English reemerged as a literary language through the works of Geoffrey Chaucer and his contemporaries, bridging Anglo-Saxon traditions with the Renaissance.
The Middle English period (1066-1500) marks one of the most transformative eras in the history of English literature. Following the Norman Conquest in 1066, English was displaced as the language of power and culture by Anglo-Norman French, surviving primarily as the vernacular of the common people. Yet over these four centuries, English gradually reasserted itself, absorbing French influences while maintaining its Germanic core, until it emerged triumphant in the works of Geoffrey Chaucer (c. 1343-1400) - the first major English poet whose works continue to be widely read today.
This period witnessed the evolution of English from Old English (Beowulf's language) to a form much more recognizable to modern speakers. The linguistic changes were so profound that Chaucer's Middle English, while challenging, is comprehensible to modern readers with some guidance, whereas Old English requires study as a foreign language.
The Middle English period can be divided into three phases:
1066-1300: A transitional period with limited literary output in English, dominated by French-language works. Notable exceptions include the Ancrene Wisse (a guide for anchoresses) and Layamon's Brut, which retold Arthurian legends in English.
1300-1400: The reemergence of English literature with works like Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, Pearl, and William Langland's Piers Plowman. This period saw English regain prestige as a literary language.
1400-1500: The flowering of Middle English literature, dominated by Chaucer's works and his contemporaries. This period culminated in the introduction of the printing press by William Caxton in 1476, which helped standardize English.
The year 1066 marked a watershed moment in English history. When William the Conqueror defeated King Harold at the Battle of Hastings, he initiated profound changes that would reshape English language and literature:
Middle English underwent significant grammatical changes:
The linguistic situation began to shift in the 13th century. The loss of Normandy in 1204 weakened ties to France, and the Black Death (1348-51), which killed about one-third of England's population, disrupted the social order. These events, combined with the outbreak of the Hundred Years' War (1337-1453), fostered a growing sense of English national identity.
"And Frenssh she spak ful faire and fetisly, After the scole of Stratford atte Bowe, For Frenssh of Parys was to hire unknowe."
Geoffrey Chaucer (c. 1343-1400) stands as the towering figure of Middle English literature. His works, particularly The Canterbury Tales, demonstrated the artistic potential of English as a literary language and established many conventions that would shape English poetry for centuries.
Chaucer
Born into a prosperous London wine merchant family, Chaucer's life reflects the social mobility possible in 14th-century England. His career included:
This varied career gave Chaucer intimate knowledge of all levels of English society, from royalty to commoners, which he would later portray with unprecedented realism in his poetry.
(1368-1372) - Chaucer's first major poem, an elegy for Blanche of Lancaster, wife of John of Gaunt. Demonstrates his early French influences.
(1380s) - A complete narrative poem adapting Boccaccio's Il Filostrato, considered by some as the first English novel. Showcases Chaucer's mastery of rhyme royal.
(1387-1400) - Chaucer's masterpiece, left unfinished at his death. A collection of stories told by pilgrims traveling to Canterbury Cathedral, representing a cross-section of medieval society.
The Canterbury Tales represents the crowning achievement of Middle English literature. The framework is simple yet revolutionary: a group of pilgrims traveling to Canterbury agree to tell stories to pass the time. This device allowed Chaucer to:
The Canterbury Tales
The General Prologue introduces the pilgrims with masterful characterization. The Knight represents idealized chivalry, while the Miller embodies crude vitality. The Wife of Bath, one of literature's first fully realized female characters, challenges medieval attitudes toward women and marriage.
Chaucer's tales reflect their tellers' personalities and social positions. The Knight tells a noble romance, the Miller a bawdy fabliau, and the Pardoner a moral allegory about greed. This interplay between tale and teller creates rich irony and psychological depth unprecedented in English literature.
"Whan that Aprill with his shoures soote The droghte of March hath perced to the roote... Thanne longen folk to goon on pilgrimages."
While Chaucer dominates the period, several other significant works illustrate the diversity of Middle English literature:
An early Middle English verse chronicle recounting Britain's legendary history, including King Arthur.
Written in alliterative verse, the Brut adapts Wace's French Roman de Brut into English, demonstrating the language's reemergence for historical writing.
A masterpiece of alliterative verse, combining Arthurian romance with moral testing.
This anonymous poem showcases the Northwest Midlands dialect and the survival of alliterative verse traditions alongside French-inspired rhyme.
William Langland's allegorical dream vision criticizing clerical corruption.
Exists in three versions (A, B, and C texts), this work reflects religious and social concerns leading up to the Peasants' Revolt of 1381.
An elegiac dream vision by the Gawain-poet, exploring grief and salvation.
This intricately structured poem uses a 12-line stanza with complex rhyme and alliteration, demonstrating the technical sophistication of Middle English poetry.
The Middle English period laid the foundation for modern English literature in several crucial ways:
By 1500, English had reestablished itself as the dominant language of literature and government. The London dialect used by Chaucer became the basis for modern Standard English.
Middle English writers established genres that would dominate English literature for centuries: the romance, the dream vision, the frame narrative, and character-based storytelling.
The period saw the emergence of a distinct English literary tradition that blended Anglo-Saxon, French, and Italian influences into something uniquely English.
Chaucer's influence was immediate and lasting. His 15th-century followers, called the Scottish Chaucerians in Scotland and the English Chaucerians in England, imitated his style and verse forms. When William Caxton introduced the printing press to England in 1476, Chaucer's works were among the first books printed, ensuring their preservation and dissemination.
Modern readers often find Middle English literature surprisingly accessible. While the language requires some adjustment, the concerns of Chaucer's characters - love, death, social climbing, religious doubt - remain immediately recognizable. This combination of strangeness and familiarity makes the Middle English period one of the richest in literary history.
For those interested in exploring Middle English literature further, these resources provide excellent starting points:
